Who Dominates the Classical Art World in New York in the 1920s?
Native American Art
Before Europeans colonized North America, rich, complex art traditions flourished amidst many indigenous tribes who had adult a highly stylized vocabulary that employed complex geometric patterns and used near abstracted forms that both evoked the natural earth and symbolized ancestral and mythological stories. The objects were ofttimes utilitarian and, at the same time, imbued with ritual significance. However, the newly arrived colonists in the Eastern United States primarily viewed those traditions as curiosities or arts and crafts, while aspiring to British fine art traditions and cultural values. Native American artists adapted the new materials and techniques brought by the colonists, including floral embroidery, chaplet, and silvery smithing.
At the aforementioned time, some ethnic artists developed a European fashion to draw native subjects. David Cusick, a Tuscarora artist, published his Sketches of Ancient History of the Six Nations in 1828, and, along with his blood brother Dennis, a watercolorist, established the Iroquois Realist School. The offset Native American art movement included over 25 Iroquois artists, who employed drawing, painting, and printmaking to realistically depict their tribe's beliefs, history, fashion, and lifestyle. Edmonia Lewis, of Mississauga Ojibwe and African-American descent, became internationally known for her Neoclassical sculpture, like The Expiry of Cleopatra (1876), exhibited at the Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia. In the early 1900s, Native American art began to receive national and international attending. The Kiowa Half dozen, Spencer Asah, James Auchiah, Jack Hokeah, Stephen Mopope, Lois Smoky, and Monroe Tsatoke, were celebrated for their Ledger drawings that employed strong outlined, apartment areas of bold color. The grouping exhibited at the 1928 First International Fine art Exposition in Prague and the Venice Biennale in 1932.
Folk Art
Much American folk art is utilitarian in nature, as sculptures were primarily figureheads for ships, weathervanes, and carved gravestones, but framed embroideries and velvet paintings were as well fabricated for wall decorations. Early on American folk painters were called limners, from a term limning, meaning, "to outline in clear, abrupt detail." Often self-taught, limners travelled from town to boondocks and made a living by offering to paint anything, from signs for local merchants to farm implements and carriages. Every bit the colonies reflected the British cultural values that viewed portraiture as a sign of social standing, art portraitists similar the French born Henrietta Johnston, who emigrated to Charleston, South Carolina around 1705, gravitated to the cities, while limners made it possible for ordinary people in modest towns to have their portraits painted. Boldly colored and outlined without modeling or shading, folk art portrayals were ofttimes intimate, depicting the sitter with a few objects that were of personal significance. First his career as limner, Edward Hicks became famous for his The Peaceable Kingdom (1829-31), a work that expressed his Quaker values in a dynamic folk style. Folk art likewise drew upon African American traditions; in the 1880s Harriet Powers, a former slave, began exhibiting her quilts, depicting powerful narratives in bold color and geometric forms and patterns.
American Architecture
Subsequently the Revolutionary War, when the young nation was building its identity, early American architecture drew from British and Neoclassical architecture. Based on the piece of work and theory of the Venetian Renaissance builder, Andrea Palladio, Neoclassicism was the dominant architectural style in 18thursday-century Europe. Thomas Jefferson, the tertiary president of the The states, was also an innovative architect, and his blueprint for Monticello (1772-1809), his home in Virginia, exemplified the Neoclassical style, employing a Palladian portico with four colored columns. During his Presidency, his ideas too informed Benjamin Henry Latrobe's designs of the U.S. Capitol building, launching what became known as the Federal fashion, favored for official buildings.
Developing around 1830 within the context of Neoclassicism, Beaux-Arts architecture rejected Neoclassicism'southward formality to incorporate elements from Renaissance, Baroque, and Late Gothic architecture. In the United States, the Beaux-Arts manner, led past Richard Morris Hunt, became known as the "American Renaissance," or "American Classicism." Hunt actively promoted the popular style, which was employed in designs for private mansions and public buildings, including the Biltmore Firm (1889-95) built for the tycoon George Vanderbilt. In the 20th century, American Beaux-Arts architects returned to less ornamental and classical designs, exemplified by Henry Bacon and Daniel Chester French'southward Lincoln Monument (1914-22).
Beginning in 1890 and influenced by the British Arts and Crafts motility and Japonism, the highly influential Art Nouveau move featured organic, flowing, floral motifs. Fine art Nouveau architects viewed the edifice, its interior spaces, and details, equally a unified whole. Louis Comfort Tiffany, Louis Sullivan, and Frank Lloyd Wright were influenced past Art Nouveau. Sullivan'south Wainwright Building (1891) used a frieze with a decorative motif of celery-leaf foliage, decorative spandrels, and an elaborate archway door. Such architectural motifs became popular for skyscrapers and loftier rises, every bit seen in New York's Decker Building (1892). Afterwards, in the xxth century, Fine art Deco was adapted to Public Works projects and iconic buildings such as William Van Alen's Chrysler Building (1930).
Starting time in 1914, the International Style emphasized the utilise of steel, drinking glass, and concrete. Emerging during the backwash of World State of war I and viewed as reflecting the modern age, information technology was oft used for postwar housing. Austrian architects Richard Neutra and R.G. Schindler introduced the fashion when they moved to America in the 1910 and worked with Frank Lloyd Wright. Though both men created notable International Style buildings, as seen by Neutra's Lovell Wellness House (1929), the aesthetic did not truly flourish in the United States until later World War II, when economic expansion led to a smash in skyscraper construction. Leading architects, including Walter Gropius, Marcel Breuer, and Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, came to the United States in the post-war period and taught a new generation of American architects, while designing notable buildings. Mies for instance, congenital the Seagram Building (1954-58) in New York and the campus of the Illinois Institute of Technology in Chicago (completed in 1956). The International Style, with its glass defunction and industrial construction, was besides used for fast-nutrient restaurants and gas stations equally America undertook construction of new interstates, connecting the country from coast to coast.
Starting time in 1950, Brutalism, as well called New Brutalism, was a style of massive architecture that primarily employed unfinished, precast physical. The manner became pop for academy campus buildings, performance fine art venues, libraries, authorities buildings, and corporate offices throughout the United States. Paul Rudolph was a leading proponent of the style equally seen in his Yale Art and Compages Building (1958). Due to American enthusiasm for the style, European architects adopted the mode in their major commissions; Le Corbusier with Oscar Niemeyer, Wallace Harrison, and Max Abramovitz designed the United Nations Headquarters (1948-52), and Marcel Breuer worked with a number of American architectural teams to design Boston City Hall (1963-68). Breuer and Hamilton Smith's Breuer Edifice (1966), abode to the Whitney Museum of American Art and later an expanded Metropolitan Museum, was also a trendsetting Brutalist design.
Hudson River School (1826-seventy)
The Hudson River School, led past Thomas Cole, who was built-in in Uk but emigrated to the United States when he was seventeen, was the first recognized American art movement. Centered in upper New York state, which was then wilderness, the artists associated with the move emphasized the sublime and unique dazzler of the American mural. Influenced by Romanticism's concept of the sublime and Naturalism'south emphasis on precise observed detail, Cole's landscapes like Kaaterskill Upper Fall, Catskill Mountains (1825) and Dunlap Lake with Dead Copse (Catskill) (1825) depicted American scenes to evoke the limitless possibilities of the new nation.
Post-obit Cole'due south death in 1848, Asher B. Durand, influenced by the French Barbizon School, led the turn toward a more naturalistic painting. The artists Frederic Edwin Church, Albert Bierstadt, John Frederick Kensett, George Inness, and Thomas Moran formed the second generation. Their works became enormously pop, as the exhibition of only ane panoramic painting could describe thousands of visitors. In the 1860s, as Manifest Destiny with its phone call to go West became a dominant national forcefulness, Bierstadt and Moran turned their attention to panoramas of the dramatic western landscape, and, along with William Keith and Thomas Hill, were sometimes called the Rocky Mountain School. Their works also inspired and informed the movement to preserve America's natural wonders, including the Yellowstone and Grand Tetons Parks. Alternatively, the intimate scale and feeling of George Inness's works like The Delaware Valley (c.1863), and John Frederick Kensett's depictions of light reflecting on bodies of water played a pioneering function in developing what later came to be called Luminism.
Luminism (1850-75)
The term Luminism was developed by fine art historians in the 1950s to place a style that flourished from 1850-1870 amidst a number of American landscape painters. They drew upon a number of influences, including the landscape painting of the Dutch Aureate Age, photography, and the genre landscapes of George Harvey, William Sidney Mountain, and George Caleb Bingham. John Frederick Kensett, who led the movement, emphasized the landscape itself, with very piffling, if any, human presence; he focused on the play of lite and atmosphere upon a body of water, equally seen in his View of the Shrewsbury River, New Bailiwick of jersey (1859). Rather than exploring new vistas and rugged landscapes, each of the Luminists was associated with a item locale, every bit the creative person returned to the aforementioned scenes, painting the changing lite and atmosphere from day to twenty-four hours or season to season. The Luminists, who included Kinsett, Fitz Henry Lane, Jasper Francis Cropsey, Sanford Robinson Gifford, and Martin Johnson Heade, preferred minor-scale intimate works that emphasized the individual's communion with nature, reflecting Ralph Waldo Emerson and Henry David Thoreau's philosophy of Transcendentalism, which held that spiritual truth was revealed in the contemplation of nature.
Tonalism (1870-1915)
Tonalism emerged in the early 1870s in James McNeill Whistler's serial of Nocturnes that emphasized tonal harmonies, often in muted greens, blues, and dark colors, to depict landscapes at twilight. Of works like his famous and controversial Nocturne in Blackness and Gold: The Falling Rocket (c.1875), Whistler said, "A nocturne is an arrangement of line, form and color first," simply he also felt tonal harmonies were the visual equivalent of musical compositions. Born in America, Whistler lived most of his life in Britain where he played a pioneering office in a number of movements, including Japonism, the Aesthetic Movement, and the Anglo-Japanese aesthetic. Tonalists George Inness and Albert Pinkham Ryder were too influenced past the Barbizon School. Using gold and brown tones to depict a landscape at sunrise or dusk, Inness emphasized spiritual expression in works like Sunrise (1887), while Ryder oftentimes introduced a mythological narrative element into his mysterious landscapes that were precursors of Symbolism. In 1899 Henry Ward Ranger founded the Old Lyme Colony in Connecticut, seeing it as an "American Barbizon." A second generation of Tonalists, including Allen Butler Talcott, Henry Cook White, Bruce Crane, William Henry Howe, Louis Paul Dessar, and Jules Turcas, joined the artistic colony. In 1903 Childe Hassam joined the colony and briefly took up the fashion before abandoning it in favor of American Impressionism.
American Impressionism (1880-1920)
American Impressionism was primarily inspired and influenced by the French Impressionists, including Claude Monet, Pierre-August Renoir, and Alfred Sisley among others, who first exhibited together in Paris in 1874. French Impressionism influenced both the expatriates John Vocaliser Sargent and James McNeill Whistler, though neither fully embraced the movement. Mary Cassatt became America'south first well-known Impressionist. Moving to Paris in 1866, she became close friends with Edgar Degas and associated and exhibited with many of the leading Impressionists. Her works, total of vibrant color, expressive brushstrokes, oft portrayed intimate gatherings in relaxed conservative environments, as well as many depictions of a mother and child, and were enormously pop in the United States. In 1883, the first U.S. exhibition of the French Impressionists Monet, Renoir, Pissarro, and Manet influenced the artists William Merritt Hunt, Childe Hassam, and Edmund C. Trabell. A number of thriving artist colonies devoted to American Impressionism developed throughout the country.
Ashcan School (1900-15)
The Ashcan School was a grouping of artists including John Sloan, George Luks, Everett Shinn, and William James Glackens, all students of Robert Henri, so located in Philadelphia. Drawing upon earlier masters, including Diego Velázquez, Francisco de Goya, and the later Realists similar Édouard Manet, the group employed classical methods to create realistic and gritty scenes of modernistic, working-course life, or what Henri chosen "art for life's sake." After the group relocated to New York City, a 2nd generation of artists followed, including George Bellows, whose Disappointments of the Ash Can (1915) gave the movement its name. In 1908, Edwin Lawson, Arthur B. Davies, and Maurice Prendergast joined the core group, known every bit The Eight, as they formed their own exhibition in opposition to the then dominant system of juried exhibitions by the National Academy of Design. Using gestural brushwork and a dark color palette, the artists' unidealized subjects aligned them with an innovative modernistic sensibility, which influenced the subsequently Social Realism motility and the artists Edward Hopper and Ben Shahn. Sloan and Henri also taught and influenced many of the artists of the Fourteenth Street Schoolhouse.
Photography: Pictorialism, Straight Photography, and Beyond (1902-Present)
Modernistic Photography, emerging out of scientific explorations of botany, archeology, and movement, incorporated a host of artistic styles. Pictorialism was an international photographic movement that used darkroom manipulations, composite images, posed and staged scenes, and blurred and soft focus to emphasize individual expression. Showtime in Uk in the 1840s, by the mid-1880s Pictorialism had become a flourishing move. In 1902 in New York, Alfred Stieglitz and Edward Steichen advocated for the importance of photography and launched the journal Camera Piece of work in 1903 and The Little Galleries of the Photo-Secession in 1905.
Straight Photography, emphasizing the technology of the photographic camera itself, rejected Pictorialism in favor of sharply focused images that were rich in particular. In 1907, Stieglitz in his photographs like The Steerage began to explore the "straight" epitome without prior posing of the subject or subsequent utilise of darkroom manipulations. He influenced a number of leading photographers and ardently promoted the works of Paul Strand in a 1917 issue of Photographic camera Work. Many of these works employed close-up shots with tight cropping to emphasize near abstract patterns and course, every bit seen in Strand'southward Porch Shadows (1916). Direct Photography became a dominant tendency that continues to the present day.
The emphasis upon abstract pattern and form influenced the development of Abstract Photography, which began in 1916 with Alvin Langdon Coburn'southward Vortographs (1916). Stieglitz called him the "youngest star" of the Photo-Secession group, and Coburn began exploring abstruse images as early on every bit 1912. Both Paul Strand and Stieglitz were to explore most abstraction besides.
In 1931, Edward Weston, Imogen Cunningham, Ansel Adams, and Willard Van Dyke formed Group f/64 in San Francisco. The movement emphasized what Van Dyke described as "pure photography...defined as possessing no qualities of technic, limerick or idea, derivative of any other fine art-form" and fabricated its public debut in a 1932 exhibition at the M.H. de Young Museum. Though many of the photographers had begun their careers as Pictorialists, they at present firmly rejected that motion'due south emphasis on fuzzy "artistic" furnishings, equanimous scenes, and darkroom manipulations. Their subject matter was often ordinary and frequently taken from nature, as Cunningham became known for her series of Magnolia blossoms, Weston for his images of a single green pepper, Adams for his images of Yosemite Park. Group f/64, and in particular Weston and Adams, also revitalized Abstract Photography, which re-emerged in the 1940s in the works of Minor White and Aaron Siskind.
Synchromism (1912-24)
Synchromism emphasized abstract paintings that primarily employed the color scale to create a visual "symphony," or musical effect. Morgan Russell and Stanton Macdonald-Wright, both young Americans living in Paris, founded America's first advanced movement in 1912. They adopted the color theories of Ernest Percyval-Tudor, a Canadian living in Paris, who believed that twelve colors of the spectrum corresponded to the twelve steps of the musical scale, and Russell coined the name for the movement past combining "symphony" with "chrome." Russell'southward Synchromy in Light-green (1913) launched the movement at the 1913 Salon des Indépendants in Paris, where it influenced Lee Simonson, a modernist theater set designer, and John Edward Thompson who after became known equally the "dean of Colorado fine art" for introducing modern fine art to the area.
Harlem Renaissance (1920 - early on 1940s)
The term Harlem Renaissance defines a flow when music, literature, theater, painting and sculpture flourished within the rich and vibrant culture of New York's Harlem neighborhood. The movement, known for various styles, celebrated the "New Negro," a concept advanced by author Alain Locke that emphasized a new African American sense of dignity, founded in equal rights and connected to the rich cultural traditions of Africa and Egypt. Post-obit the Nifty Migration that began effectually 1910 when many African Americans left the southern states for the greater opportunity and liberty of the north, vibrant communities adult in Harlem besides every bit Chicago and Philadelphia. sculpture Ethiopia (1921) was an early pioneering influence, and international success of the earlier African American artists Mary Edmonia Lewis and Henry Ossawa Tanner became a defining model. Working in a variety of styles, artists including Aaron Douglas, Augusta Vicious, Archibald J. Motley Jr. and the photographer James Van Der Zee became leading figures of the new movement. Their work and teaching after informed a subsequent generation that included Jacob Lawrence, Beauford Delaney, and William H. Johnson.
Fourteenth Street School (1920-40)
In the 1950s, the term Fourteenth Street School was developed to define the works of Kenneth Hayes Miller, Isabel Bishop, and Reginald Marsh fabricated in the 1920s and 1930s. Their subjects were taken from the New York neighborhood around Union Square and Fourteenth Street. The area, known equally the "poor man'south 5th Artery," was a rising mercantile eye, featuring retail department stores, whose sales, featuring the latest fashion at inexpensive prices, drew thousands of center-grade shoppers. Miller, a leader of the movement, began painting portrayals of the women shoppers in the 1920s. Teaching at the Art Heart League, he influenced Bishop and March, equally well every bit Raphael Soyer and Edward Laning, who besides became later members of the group. Influenced by the Renaissance and Baroque masters, the grouping's figurative treatments oftentimes lent a kind of classical nobility to the portrayals of matronly shoppers, function girls, and career girls, who were seen as the apotheosis of the "New Adult female" and progressive prosperity. Due to realistic treatment of modernistic life, the movement is often included nether Social Realism, though it shared little of that motility's assail upon the status quo or interest in political content.
American Regionalism (1928-43)
American Regionalism was not a deliberately formed movement only a style and approach that developed organically in the works of Thomas Hart Benton, John Steuart Curry, and Grant Wood. The 3 emphasized realistic depictions of rural life and ordinary situations, and each of them was associated with a particular region: Curry with Kansas, Benton with Missouri, and Wood with Iowa. They drew upon a number of divergent influences: Forest was influenced by the Northern Renaissance artist Hans Memling, Benton had been part of the Synchromist movement, and Back-scratch utilized his prior feel in illustration, simply their work consistently rejected mod European art and brainchild, in favor of a figurative approach to subjects that reflected what they saw as a uniquely American spirit. Wood'due south American Gothic (1930), when awarded a bronze medal at an Art Constitute of Chicago contest, publicly launched the motion, as the work received national attention in newspapers and magazines. By the cease of the 1930s, as Fascism threatened Europe, the movement's identification with a nationalist fine art came under critical fire, though other artists, including the well-known illustrator Norman Rockwell and the creative person Andrew Wyeth continued to portray realistic scenes of ordinary American life, oftentimes connected to item regions.
Social Realism (1929 - late 1950s)
Social Realism developed organically among artists who emphasized realistic depictions of the lower and working class, often within an urban environment, in order to radically transform society. Focusing on the plight of workers, the artists associated with the movement were influenced by the murals of José Clemente Orozco, the ascent of labor rights organizations, and the telephone call to worker'south rights from leftist organizations like the John Reed Society. The movement initially drew upon the optimism following the Mexican and Russian revolutions and was further shaped by the global depression that began in 1929 also as the rise of Fascism in the 1930s. Rejecting European avant-garde movements for their isolation from social issues, artists like William Gropper, Hugo Gellert, Max Weber, and Moses and Raphael Soyer viewed art equally a weapon to fight the capitalist exploitation of the working class. The artists Ben Shahn, Philip Evergood, and Antonio Berni were also important members of the motility, as were Aaron Douglas and Jacob Lawrence, both too part of the Harlem Renaissance. In the 1930s, WPA-sponsored documentary photographers, including Dorothea Lange and Walker Evans, were loosely associated with the movement as they depicted the rural poor and the devastating touch on of the Great Low, as well as the Dust Bowl that ravaged the agricultural Midwest.
Abstruse Expressionism, Colour Field Painting, Mail service-Painterly and Difficult-Edge Abstraction (1943-65)
Abstract Expressionism began in the early 1940s, centered in New York and led by Jackson Pollock, Clyfford Still, Willem de Kooning, Marking Rothko, and Adolph Gottlieb. As the leading Surrealists fled Europe during Earth State of war Two for New York, the Abstract Expressionists were influenced past Surrealism'due south emphasis on automatism, an art that tapped into the unconscious. While the artists had begun their careers painting representational images, they moved toward increasing abstraction. Peggy Guggenheim's Art of This Century Gallery exhibited and supported the emerging motility, and she commissioned Pollock's monumental and innovative Landscape (1943). The critic Clement Greenberg played a leading office in advocating for the movement, emphasizing purely visual and abstruse effects of the paintings. American's first international fine art movement, Abstruse Expressionism too effectively established New York as the eye of the modernistic art world and led to a number of other developments, including Color Field Painting, Action Painting, Post-painterly abstraction, and hard-edge painting.
Color Field Painting, which began in the late 1940s, led by Clyfford Yet, Mark Rothko and Barnett Newman, emphasized color every bit a powerfully expressive object. Still's canvases deployed bold colors in jagged forms; Rothko turned toward diaphanous rectangles of color, and Newman created "zip" paintings, where vertical strips of color intersected big horizontal fields of color. Greenberg championed Color Field Painting, with its emphasis on flatness and non-illusionistic infinite, equally the mode forward for avant-garde painting.
In 1952, influential art critic Harold Rosenberg in his essay "The American Action Painters" focused on the act of the artist in deciding to pigment, thus coining the term Action Painting in favor of Abstract Expressionism. Franz Kline, Willem de Kooning, and Jackson Pollock were associated with the term, as Rosenberg saw their works as emphasizing the event and process of painting itself. The spontaneous movements of the creative person, random drips and splashes, and energetic gestures, resulted in a piece of work that conveyed the action of the work's making.
In 1964, Greenberg curated the exhibition Post-Painterly Brainchild for the Los Angeles County Museum of Art. The prove included work by 31 artists, including Morris Louis and Helen Frankenthaler, besides as the W Coast artists Sam Francis and John Ferren. Ellsworth Kelly, Howard Mehring, Jules Olitski, and Kenneth Noland were also included. Greenberg wrote that these artists "take a tendency...to stress contrasts of pure hue rather than contrasts of light and night...In their reaction against the 'handwriting' and the 'gestures' of Painterly Abstraction, these artists also favor a relatively anonymous execution." The Washington Colour School, led by Noland and included Factor Davis, Morris Louis, and Thomas Downing among others, emphasized abstruse art where color was emphasized to create class.
Drawing from the Color Field Painters, hard-edge painting was a term that defined a trend toward economical forms, impersonal execution, and make clean lines. In the 1950s, Californian art critic Jules Langsner described the trend that used "forms [that] are finite, flat, rimmed by a hard, clean edge...They are autonomous shapes, sufficient unto themselves every bit shapes." In the 1960s the trend was also associated with Al Held, Ellsworth Kelly, Morris Louis, Frank Stella, Miriam Schapiro, and Kenneth Noland.
Around 1950 in the Bay Area of San Francisco, David Park, Richard Diebenkorn, and Elmer Bischoff rejected pure abstraction in favor of figurative subjects. The Bay Expanse Painters also included Manuel Neri, Nathan Oliveira, and Joan Brown. Many of the artists had begun their careers as Abstract Expressionists and retained elements of that movement in their landscapes and portraits, while at the aforementioned time celebrating local civilisation and mural.
Also, by the mid-1950s a number of Second Generation of Abstruse Expressionists, including Jack Beal, Jane Freilicher, and Nell Blaine, rejected the movement and turned toward figurative fine art. Including Fairfield Porter, Alex Katz, and Lois Dodd, the loose clan of New York artists spearheaded a new emphasis on realism that became known as Gimmicky Realism.
Neo-Dada (1952-70)
Get-go in 1952, Neo-Dada developed, as Jasper Johns, Allan Kaprow, and Robert Rauschenberg, began to employ "readymades," mass media, and performances. The artists rejected the existentialist heroics connected with Abstract Expressionism in favor of mundane subjects and blurred the traditional boundaries between media. Influenced by Marcel Duchamp and Dada, the motility had its start at Black Mountain College in Due north Carolina in 1952 and included Rauschenberg, the choreographer Merce Cunningham, and the composer John Cage. Muzzle's Theatre Piece No. 1 (1952) exemplified the group'southward emphasis on audience interaction, multiple media, and the office of adventure.
Allan Kaprow created "environments," using sculptural collages to create installation pieces and afterwards, later on taking Cage's course, added audible components. He adult the term "happenings" to describe the quasi-theatrical events where, influenced past Futurism'southward concept of the upshot equally overwhelming all boundaries and Dada's emphasis on the function of chance, the boundary between outcome and audience was broken.
Many Fluxus artists, including George Brecht, Robert Whitman, and Robert Watts, were interested in Neo-Dada and happenings. Fluxus, described as an "anti-art" movement, had utopian goals of wanting to change 1's relation to art and to underscore the artfulness of everyday objects and actions. Leading members of the group Dick Higgins, Jackson Mac Low, and Al Hans met in Cage'southward 1959 class at the New School. Fluxus artists often used humor to undercut and dismiss high art. George Maciunas, the founder of Fluxus, described Fluxus equally "a fusion of Spike Jones, gags, games, Vaudeville, Cage, and Duchamp." Fluxus was an international movement that likewise included Yoko Ono, Nam June Paik, and Joseph Beuys. Paik pioneered the development of Video Fine art, when he presented his video footage of the Pope's visit to New York every bit a serious artwork in 1965.
Pop Fine art and Photorealism (mid 1950s-1970s)
Pop Art was an international movement that had begun in Britain in 1952, led by the Independent Grouping, including Richard Hamilton, Eduardo Paolozzi, and the architects Alison and Peter Smithson, but the American version became the trendsetting and ascendant form. Led by Andy Warhol, Roy Lichtenstein, Claes Oldenburg, and James Rosenquist, the artists used images taken from mass media and popular culture to challenge the distinction between "high" and "low" art and to critique and gloat consumer culture. Warhol, Rosenquist, and Ed Ruscha were influenced by their early on work as graphic designers and illustrators.
Photorealism, also called Hyperrealism, painted photographic images projected onto a large sail, often with an airbrush, to resemble a finished photograph. Richard Estes, Chuck Shut, Robert Bechtle, Ralph Goings, and Audrey Flack drew upon different influences, including Pop Fine art and Minimalism, and employed a variety of techniques, as they worked independently of one another. They frequently depicted objects from consumer culture, equally in Ralph Goings' McDonalds Pickup (1970) or Richard Estes's Supreme Hardware Shop (1970).
Minimalism and Post-Minimalism (1960 - Present)
In New York in the early 1960s, Minimalist artists such as Donald Judd, Carl Andre, Sol LeWitt, and Robert Morris created works from industrial materials while employing a absurd and bearding approach. Influenced by Russian Constructivism, Minimalists emphasized the materiality of the medium equally perceived by the viewer and preferred industrial materials and fabrication. Rejecting Greenberg'southward formalist conception of painting, they emphasized an approach that, using a minimum of shape, colour, and other elements, was also chosen "Systemic Painting," or "Reductive Art." Frank Stella, Tony Smith, Richard Serra, Ronald Bladen, and Dan Flavin were associated with the movement that rapidly became dominant in America and internationally, while informing other developments, including Post-Minimalism and the Light and Space movement.
Post-Minimalism included a number of trends, including Process Art, Performance and Body Art, Site-Specific Fine art, and some aspects of Conceptual Art. Art critic Lucy Lippard curated Eccentric Abstraction in 1968, an exhibition that included work by Louise Bourgeois, Eva Hesse, and Bruce Nauman, whose pieces were fabricated of soft or pliable materials. Some artists associated with Post-Minimalism extended the Minimalist interest in bearding and abstract objects into other areas, while others reacted against Minimalism's cool anonymous approach in favor of emotional expression. Lynda Benglis, Eva Hesse, and Louise Conservative used resins and latex, while Nancy Graves used materials to simulate brute hides, and the resulting works created an organic expressive event. Sol LeWitt, Richard Serra, and Vito Acconci were besides included among the Post-Minimalists.
Based in California and influenced by Minimalism, Robert Irwin began creating large installations using light sources in 1969 and pioneered what became known equally the Light and Infinite movement. Larry Bell, James Turrell, John McCracken and Helen Pashgian were all associated with the movement that used industrial materials, including neon and argon lights, cast acrylic, and polyester resins to create perceptual experiences. Cartoon upon new scientific research and technologies, they created works that emphasized the interaction of light and infinite.
Earth Art and Environmental Art (1960s - Present)
Also chosen Land Art or Earthworks, Globe Fine art was an outgrowth of Minimalism, as the globe itself became both the material object and the site specific to art, and artists used the site'south bachelor natural materials, such as mud, world, and stone, to blueprint large-scale projects that were keyed to the site'southward significance. Oftentimes including some element of performance, Earth Art shared sure trends with Post-Minimalism, including Performance Art, process art, and Installation Art. The 1969 Earth Art exhibition at Cornell Academy, which including the works of Robert Smithson, Walter de Maria, Michael Heizer, Robert Morris, Dennis Oppenheim, and Hans Haacke, launched the movement. The artists, similar Smithson, were often inspired by aboriginal sites, including Stonehenge or the Native American Snake Mound, and saw their works equally subject to irresolute conditions and entropy, the devolution of a arrangement over fourth dimension. Nancy Holt, Richard Long, Agnes Denes, and Andy Goldsworthy were also leading Earth Work artists.
The movement influenced the development of Environmental Fine art, also known as ecological art. Emphasizing a non-invasive approach, Environmental artists saw themselves every bit collaborating with the environment and exploring human interaction with natural environments. Betty Beaumont, Andy Goldsworthy, Agnes Denes, Meg Webster, Olafur Eliasson, herman de vries, Nils Udo, and Chris Jordan are the leading artists of the movement. They employed a diversity of approaches; Beaumont transformed ability establish waste into an underwater reef in her Ocean Landmark (1978-fourscore), while Goldsworthy, over a period of four years, working, as he said, "in collaboration with nature," arranged pieces of limestone from fields where he worked as a gardener to create his Pinfold Cones (1981-85).
The Multinational Flavors of Postmodernism (1960s - Present)
In the 1960s, a heady atmosphere of experimentation reigned, leading to the development of Conceptual Art, Feminist Art, Trunk Art, and Performance Art. Though these fine art movements were international, American artists played a significant role in their development, and their subsequent expansion into a number of trends.
Influenced past Minimalism's reductive simplicity, Conceptual art emphasized that the concept of a piece of work was more of import than its form or fifty-fifty completion. Sol LeWitt's "Paragraphs on Conceptual Fine art" (1967) became the de facto manifesto of the movement; he wrote that the artwork "no matter what class it may finally have information technology must brainstorm with an idea." Walter de Maria, Ed Ruscha, Marina Abramović, Dan Graham, and the High german artist Joseph Beuys were just a few of the leading artists who became part of the movement. In the atmosphere of experimentation, new trends adult, including Institutional Critique, led by an international array of artists, including Hans Haacke, Michael Asher, Daniel Buren, and Marcel Broodthaers, and The Pictures Generation, including Sherrie Levine, Cindy Sherman, Robert Longo, Barbara Kruger, and Richard Prince. A number of Conceptual artists created installation pieces, as Installation Fine art became a main trend, employed in a number of movements. Additionally conceptual practices informed Neo-Geo, or Neo-Geometric Conceptualism, a term that defined the works of Peter Halley, Ashley Bickerton, Jeff Koons, and Meyer Vaisman following their 1986 exhibition in New York. Using appropriative strategies, the grouping used geometric form to ironically distance itself from abstruse painting, while also using previous works as readymades that could be appropriated.
Out of the Civil Rights move, the emerging Gay Pride movement, and anti-war fervor, Feminist Art developed in the late 1960s. Women's art organizations like the Art Worker's Coalition and Women Artists in Revolution were formed to address gender inequity and other feminist issues within the art community. Judy Chicago and Miriam Schapiro founded the California Institute of the Fine art's Feminist Art Project and Womanhouse, a project where women artists could collaborate and create major installations. Mary Beth Edelson, Lynda Benglis, Martha Rosler, Carolee Schneemann, Suzanne Lacy, Leslie Labowitz, Bia Lowe, Barbara Kruger, and the Guerilla Girls were leading feminist artists, equally the move explored diverse approaches, and the artists involved became associated with several movements simultaneously. Judy Chicago became famous for her Dinner Political party (1974-79), an iconic case of both Feminist Art and Installation Art, while Carolee Schneemann's performances were pioneering in the Feminist, Body Fine art, and Performance movements. Feminist Art actively supported and inspired the evolution of Queer Fine art, focused on queer identity and connected to the Gay Pride movement and the AIDS crisis, and ushered in an era of Identity Art and Identity Politics that focused on the experience of marginalized groups and the inequities they faced.
In the 1960s, Performance art emphasized live events where the artist, sometimes with collaborators or performers, erased all boundaries between the artist and the artwork. The international motion drew upon a number of early on avant-garde trends, including Dada, Futurism, and Surrealism, but was more recently sourced in the 1950s works of John Cage, Fluxus artists, and Allan Kaprow's happenings. Staging what were sometimes chosen "actions," performance artists often confronted the audition. The movement was closely linked to the development of Body Art, as American artists, including Chris Brunt, Carolee Schneemann, and Hannah Wilke, employed their own body every bit the medium.
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Source: https://www.theartstory.org/definition/american-art/history-and-concepts/